Evolution

Developmental mechanism of nature: information and self-organisation

Why there must be a tendency towards a combination of particles into composite structures in nature

A person living alone is continuously active.  (S)he must provide the vegetables and corn (s)he needs; (s)he must grind the corn; (s)he must provide the meat (s)he  needs; (s)he  must make fire; (s)he  must construct an oven to cook; (s)he  must make dishes, spoons, etc.. In this hectic life (s)he has no time for rest.
But a person living in a society has to do only one kind of job and exchange its products (or services) with that of others.  In this manner (s)he spends less energy and enjoys more leisure time.  Analogously, this is the case in all kind of materials.  That is the reason why the basic components of our cosmos tend to make ever-complex structures and tend to coalesce into ever-bigger units.
This situation is best observed at atomic scales. For example, a proton has a mass of 1.00728 atomic-mass-units (amu) and a neutron has 1.00866 amu. A carbon atom consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons and its mass is only 12 amu. But the total mass of 6 protons + 6 neutrons is 12.0956 amu.
Now the question: Why are the protons and neutrons heavier when alone and lighter when combined?  That is the secret behind the aggregation or accumulation of sublevel-units into upper-level structures. When protons and neutrons are alone, they have to be more mobile and active due to the rule given in § 3.6. This extra activity requires more energy consumption; this extra energy induces more mass according to the E=mc2 formula. Therefore there exists a relation between mass-deficit and binding energy.  Binding energy is generally used as information to construct something.
Figure 23: Difference between singular and communal behaviours.
Let us assume 12 objects (6 blue and 6 yellow) are in mutual interaction. In this configuration, each object sends and receives signals to and from every other object, so that there exists a dense signal-field between them, requiring very high energy consumption. If those objects get combined in 3 clusters (like 2, 4, 6) the signal-exchange density drops significantly, requiring fewer signal exchanges and hence less energy consumption. All beings in nature tend to coalesce in to ever bigger combinations in order to reduce energy consumption. This is known as “principle of least action” or “Minimum Amplitude Principle” (MAP) in physics (Wolff 2008). That is the main reason behind the developments in nature.
It is this force that drives the particles to aggregate to atoms or molecules, the bacteria to eukaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells to animals or plants, animals to colonies, etc...   This behaviour is known as “rahatlama” in Turkish, is driven by Rahatlama-drive, meaning comfortableness-drive (Gedik 2006, 2008).

There is a tendency towards order (negative-entropy) in nature.

The term entropy was introduced to science by Clausius (1865), from the Greek, en+tropein, meaning "Verwandlungsinhalt” or "transformation content". In this original sense entropy means “a change of the system – or a change in the system”. I use it in its original sense.  
Entropy is defined by the formula: S = k.log W, where W=Wahrscheinlichkeit = probability; (k) is the Boltzmann constant; and (S) is entropy. 
Geologic-palaeontologic as well astrophysical data indicate that a distinctive order and organisation exists in nature and that this order and organisation developed with time. There is an increase in order and organisation in nature, as evidenced by geological and astrophysical records. But most physicists pretend an increase in disorder (entropy increase).
Our cosmos is ca. 14 billions year old according to astrophysical researches. At the beginning all matters are thought to have been in the form of subatomic units like protons, neutrons, and electrons. Physicists assume 1080 such particles in the universe. When those 1080 particles were combined in 92 chemical elements, the amount of items reduced drastically; hence, entropy must have been reduced too.
According to geological researches, our world is ca. 4.6 billions year old. The chemical elements in our world are combined in mineral structures with distinct borders, letting them behave as single units and leading to further entropy-decrease, as the lithosphere got ever thicker during geologic history.
Life started ca. 3.5 billions year ago. Photosynthetic bacteria and algae combined 6CO2 + 6H2O to a bigger molecule (C6H12O6) and reduced the amounts of molecules, leading to further entropy-decrease.
The cells were combined to build bigger animals or plants during Earth history, so that mutual interaction probabilities (hence entropy) decreased continuously.
All those observations show very clearly that in nature entropy is not increasing, but decreasing. Our world is heading towards an orderly state. But physicist have assumed a trend towards a disorderly state. Why?
Two assumptions:
First: The driving force in nature, hence the dependency, was assumed to be of an external origin. However, energy has its origin at the sub-atomic realm and as shown in the development of natural sciences, all systems are dependent on their components, and they are the ultimate information storage units in nature. Therefore all systems obey the rules of maximum information principle + minimum amplitude principle, which together leads to the development of orderly states in nature.
Second: An increase in entropy in nature was governed by the assumption of a closed natural system. There is not any closed system in nature. The components of the systems are communicating with each other and with their external environment and energy flows are determined by such interactions. Forces are results of internal mutual interactions of the constituent parts. Traditional thoughts however assumed an external origin for forces, outside the components themselves. Hence, it is not possible to construct a closed system in nature.  All systems are constructed by their components; and the smallest components in nature are quanta, being the carrier of energy and information.

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